Python2 编程入门

# -*- coding: encoding -*-

# this is the first comment
spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
          # ... and now a third!
text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

>>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
"doesn't"
>>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
"doesn't"
>>> print '"Isn\'t," she said.'
"Isn't," she said.

>>> print 'C:\some\name'  # here \n means newline!
C:\some
ame
>>> print r'C:\some\name'  # note the r before the quote
C:\some\name

# 换行字符会自动被当成第一个字符，使用反斜杠 \ 能避免。
print """\
Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     -h                        Display this usage message
     -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
"""

>>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
>>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
'unununium'

>>> 'Py' 'thon'
'Python'

>>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
...         'to have them joined together.')
>>> text
'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

>>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
>>> len(s)
34

>>> word = 'Python'
>>> word[0]  # character in position 0
'P'
>>> word[5]  # character in position 5
'n'

# 序号可以为负数，从末尾开始计数。negative indices start from -1.
>>> word[-1]  # last character
'n'
>>> word[-2]  # second-last character
'o'
>>> word[-6]
'P'

>>> word = 'Python'
>>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
'Py'
>>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
'tho'

>>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
'Py'
>>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
'on'
>>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
'on'

>>> word[0] = 'J'
  ...
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignments

>>> u'Hello World !'
u'Hello World !'

>>> u'Hello\u0020World !'
u'Hello World !'

# raw mode, quote with ‘ur’

>>> ur'Hello\u0020World !'
u'Hello World !'
>>> ur'Hello\\u0020World !'
u'Hello\\\\u0020World !'

>>> u"abc"
u'abc'
>>> str(u"abc")
'abc'
>>> u"äöü"
u'\xe4\xf6\xfc'
>>> str(u"äöü")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode characters in position 0-2: ordinal not in range(128)

>>> u"äöü".encode('utf-8')
'\xc3\xa4\xc3\xb6\xc3\xbc'

>>> unicode('\xc3\xa4\xc3\xb6\xc3\xbc', 'utf-8')
u'\xe4\xf6\xfc'

>>> x = int(raw_input("Please enter an integer: "))
Please enter an integer: 42
>>> if x < 0:
...     x = 0
...     print 'Negative changed to zero'
... elif x == 0:
...     print 'Zero'
... elif x == 1:
...     print 'Single'
... else:
...     print 'More'
...
More

>>> # Measure some strings:
... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
...     print w, len(w)
...
cat 3
window 6
defenestrate 12

>>> for w in words[:]:  # Loop over a slice copy of the entire list.
...     if len(w) > 6:
...         words.insert(0, w)
...
>>> words
['defenestrate', 'cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']

# the position index and corresponding value can be retrieved at the same time using the enumerate() function.
>>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
...     print i, v
...
0 tic
1 tac
2 toe

# To loop over two or more sequences at the same time, the entries can be paired with the zip() function.
>>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
>>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
>>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
...     print 'What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a)
...
What is your name?  It is lancelot.
What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

# To loop over a sequence in reverse, first specify the sequence in a forward direction and then call the reversed() function.
>>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,10,2)):
...     print i
...
9
7
5
3
1

# To loop over a sequence in sorted order, use the sorted() function which returns a new sorted list while leaving the source unaltered.
>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
...     print f
...
apple
banana
orange
pear

# When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be retrieved at the same time using the iteritems() method.
>>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
>>> for k, v in knights.iteritems():
...     print k, v
...
gallahad the pure
robin the brave

>>> range(10)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

# 第三个参数表示步长，默认步长为1
>>> range(5, 10)
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> range(0, 10, 3)
[0, 3, 6, 9]
>>> range(-10, -100, -30)
[-10, -40, -70]

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
>>> for i in range(len(a)):
...     print i, a[i]
...
0 Mary
1 had
2 a
3 little
4 lamb

>>> for n in range(2, 10):
...     for x in range(2, n):
...         if n % x == 0:
...             print n, 'equals', x, '*', n/x
...             break
...     else:
...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
...         print n, 'is a prime number'
...
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 * 2
5 is a prime number
6 equals 2 * 3
7 is a prime number
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

>>> for num in range(2, 10):
...     if num % 2 == 0:
...         print "Found an even number", num
...         continue
...     print "Found a number", num
Found an even number 2
Found a number 3
Found an even number 4
Found a number 5
Found an even number 6
Found a number 7
Found an even number 8
Found a number 9

>>> while True:
...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
...

# This is commonly used for creating minimal classes:

>>> class MyEmptyClass:
...     pass
...

>>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
>>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
>>> non_null
'Trondheim'

>>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
>>> squares
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

>>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
1
>>> squares[-1]
25
>>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
[9, 16, 25]

>>> squares[:]
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

>>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
>>> len(letters)
4

>>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

>>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
>>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
>>> cubes
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

>>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
>>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
>>> cubes
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

>>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
>>> # replace some values
>>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
>>> letters
['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
>>> # now remove them
>>> letters[2:5] = []
>>> letters
['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
>>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
>>> letters[:] = []
>>> letters
[]

>>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> n = [1, 2, 3]
>>> x = [a, n]
>>> x
[['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
>>> x[0]
['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> x[0][1]
'b'

>>> squares = []
>>> for x in range(10):
...     squares.append(x**2)
...
>>> squares
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]


# 等价于
squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]  # List Comprehensions

# 等价于
squares = map(lambda x: x**2, range(10))

>>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

>>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
>>> # create a new list with the values doubled
>>> [x*2 for x in vec]
[-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
>>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
>>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
[0, 2, 4]
>>> # apply a function to all the elements
>>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
[4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
>>> # call a method on each element
>>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
>>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
>>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
>>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
>>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
>>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
>>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

# List comprehensions can contain complex expressions and nested functions:

>>> from math import pi
>>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']

>>> matrix = [
...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
... ]

>>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

# 等价于
>>> transposed = []
>>> for i in range(4):
...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
...
>>> transposed
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]


# 等价于
# 使用python built-in function ： zip
>>> zip(*matrix)
[(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

>>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
>>> del a[0]
>>> a
[1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
>>> del a[2:4]
>>> a
[1, 66.25, 1234.5]
>>> del a[:]
>>> a
[]

# del can also be used to delete entire variables:
>>> del a

>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> fruit = set(basket)               # create a set without duplicates
>>> fruit
set(['orange', 'pear', 'apple', 'banana'])
>>> 'orange' in fruit                 # fast membership testing
True
>>> 'crabgrass' in fruit
False

>>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
>>> tel['guido'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
>>> tel['jack']
4098
>>> del tel['sape']
>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
>>> tel.keys()
['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
>>> 'guido' in tel
True

# directly from sequences of key-value pairs:
>>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
{'sape': 4139, 'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127}

# specify pairs using keyword arguments
>>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
{'sape': 4139, 'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127}

>>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
{2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

>>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
...     """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
...     a, b = 0, 1
...     while a < n:
...         print a,
...         a, b = b, a+b
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
... fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

>>> def my_function():
...     """Do nothing, but document it.
...
...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
...     """
...     pass
...

>>> print my_function.__doc__
Do nothing, but document it.

    No, really, it doesn't do anything.

def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, complaint='Yes or no, please!'):
    while True:
        ok = raw_input(prompt)
        if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'):
            return True
        if ok in ('n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'):
            return False
        retries = retries - 1
        if retries < 0:
            raise IOError('refusenik user')
        print complaint

i = 5

def f(arg=i):
    print arg

i = 6
f()         # will print 5. The default value is evaluated only once. 

# This makes a difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes.

def f(a, L=[]):
    L.append(a)
    return L

print f(1)
print f(2)
print f(3)

def f(a, L=None):
    if L is None:
        L = []
    L.append(a)
    return L

def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
    print "-- This parrot wouldn't", action,
    print "if you put", voltage, "volts through it."
    print "-- Lovely plumage, the", type
    print "-- It's", state, "!"

parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
    print "-- Do you have any", kind, "?"
    print "-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind
    for arg in arguments:
        print arg
    print "-" * 40
    keys = sorted(keywords.keys())
    for kw in keys:
        print kw, ":", keywords[kw]

cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
           "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
           shopkeeper='Michael Palin',
           client="John Cleese",
           sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

# write the function call with the *-operator to unpack the arguments out of a list or tuple:
>>> range(3, 6)             # normal call with separate arguments
[3, 4, 5]
>>> args = [3, 6]
>>> range(*args)            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
[3, 4, 5]

# 同样，dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the **-operator
>>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
...     print "-- This parrot wouldn't", action,
...     print "if you put", voltage, "volts through it.",
...     print "E's", state, "!"
...
>>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
>>> parrot(**d)
-- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !

>>> def make_incrementor(n):
...     return lambda x: x + n
...
>>> f = make_incrementor(42)
>>> f(0)
42
>>> f(1)
43

>>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
>>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
>>> pairs
[(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]

>>> fib
<function fib at 10042ed0>
>>> f = fib
>>> f(100)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

>>> fib(0)
>>> print fib(0)
None

>>> def f(x): return x % 3 == 0 or x % 5 == 0
...
>>> filter(f, range(2, 25))
[3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 21, 24]

>>> def cube(x): return x*x*x
...
>>> map(cube, range(1, 11))
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000]

>>> seq = range(8)
>>> def add(x, y): return x+y
...
>>> map(add, seq, seq)
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14]

>>> def add(x,y): return x+y
...
>>> reduce(add, range(1, 11)) # 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10 = 55
55

# fibo.py
# Fibonacci numbers module

def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
    a, b = 0, 1
    while b < n:
        print b,
        a, b = b, a+b

def fib2(n):   # return Fibonacci series up to n
    result = []
    a, b = 0, 1
    while b < n:
        result.append(b)
        a, b = b, a+b
    return result

>>> import fibo
>>> fibo.fib(1000)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
>>> fibo.fib2(100)
[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
>>> fibo.__name__
'fibo'

# If you intend to use a function often you can assign it to a local name:
>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

>>> import fibo as fib
>>> fib.fib(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

#  in the example, fibo is not defined
>>> from fibo import fib, fib2
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

# import all names that a module defines:
# imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (_).
>>> from fibo import *
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

>>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
>>> fibonacci(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

__all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

>>> import fibo, sys
>>> dir(fibo)
['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
>>> dir(sys)  
['__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '_clear_type_cache',
 '_current_frames', '_getframe', '_mercurial', 'api_version', 'argv',
 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing', 'callstats',
 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_clear', 'exc_info',
 'exc_traceback', 'exc_type', 'exc_value', 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix',
 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info', 'float_repr_style',
 'getcheckinterval', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getobjects', 'getprofile', 'getrecursionlimit',
 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'gettotalrefcount', 'gettrace', 'hexversion',
 'long_info', 'maxint', 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules',
 'path', 'path_hooks', 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1',
 'py3kwarning', 'setcheckinterval', 'setdlopenflags', 'setprofile',
 'setrecursionlimit', 'settrace', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout', 'subversion',
 'version', 'version_info', 'warnoptions']

>>> for x in range(1, 11):
...     print repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3),
...     # Note trailing comma on previous line
...     print repr(x*x*x).rjust(4)

>>> for x in range(1,11):
...     print '{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x)
...

>>> print '[' + '3'.ljust(5) + ']'
[3    ]
>>> print '[' + '3'.rjust(5) + ']'
[    3]
>>> print '[' + '3'.center(5) + ']'
[  3  ]

>>> '12'.zfill(5)
'00012'
>>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
'-003.14'
>>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
'3.14159265359'

>>> print 'We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni')
We are the knights who say "Ni!"

>>> print '{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs')
spam and eggs
>>> print '{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs')
eggs and spam

>>> print 'This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible')
This spam is absolutely horrible.

>>> import math
>>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {}.'.format(math.pi)
The value of PI is approximately 3.14159265359.
>>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {!r}.'.format(math.pi)
The value of PI is approximately 3.141592653589793.

>>> import math
>>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {0:.3f}.'.format(math.pi)
The value of PI is approximately 3.142.

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
>>> for name, phone in table.items():
...     print '{0:10} ==> {1:10d}'.format(name, phone)
...
Jack       ==>       4098
Dcab       ==>       7678
Sjoerd     ==>       4127

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
>>> print ('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
...        'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

# This could also be done by passing the table as keyword arguments with the ‘**’ notation.

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
>>> print 'Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table)
Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

>>> ord('a')
97
>>> chr(97)
'a'
>>> chr(ord('a') + 3)
'd'
>>>

>>> f = open('workfile', 'w')
>>> print f
<open file 'workfile', mode 'w' at 80a0960>

>>> with open('workfile', 'r') as f:
...     read_data = f.read()
>>> f.closed
True

>>> f.read()
'This is the entire file.\n'
>>> f.read()
''

>>> f.readline()
'This is the first line of the file.\n'
>>> f.readline()
'Second line of the file\n'
>>> f.readline()
''

>>> for line in f:
        print line,

This is the first line of the file.
Second line of the file

>>> f.write('This is a test\n')

To write something other than a string, it needs to be converted to a string first:

>>> value = ('the answer', 42)
>>> s = str(value)
>>> f.write(s)

>>> f = open('workfile', 'r+')
>>> f.write('0123456789abcdef')
>>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
>>> f.read(1)
'5'
>>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
>>> f.read(1)
'd'

# object -> json string
>>> import json
>>> json.dumps([1, 'simple', 'list'])
'[1, "simple", "list"]'

# This simple serialization technique can handle lists and dictionaries, but serializing arbitrary class instances in JSON requires a bit of extra effort. 

json.dump(x, f)

# To decode the object again
x = json.load(f)

>>> while True:
...     try:
...         x = int(raw_input("Please enter a number: "))
...         break
...     except ValueError:
...         print "Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again..."
...     except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
...         pass

except ValueError as e:

# or

except ValueError, e:

>>> try:
...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
... except Exception as inst:
...     print type(inst)     # the exception instance
...     print inst.args      # arguments stored in .args
...     print inst           # __str__ allows args to be printed directly
...     x, y = inst.args
...     print 'x =', x
...     print 'y =', y
...
<type 'exceptions.Exception'>
('spam', 'eggs')
('spam', 'eggs')
x = spam
y = eggs

import sys

try:
    f = open('myfile.txt')
    s = f.readline()
    i = int(s.strip())
except IOError as e:
    print "I/O error({0}): {1}".format(e.errno, e.strerror)
except ValueError:
    print "Could not convert data to an integer."
except:
    print "Unexpected error:", sys.exc_info()[0]
    raise

>>> raise NameError('HiThere')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: HiThere

>>> try:
...     raise NameError('HiThere')
... except NameError:
...     print 'An exception flew by!'
...     raise
...
An exception flew by!
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
NameError: HiThere

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
    try:
        f = open(arg, 'r')
    except IOError:
        print 'cannot open', arg
    else:
        print arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines'
        f.close()

>>> class MyError(Exception):
...     def __init__(self, value):
...         self.value = value
...     def __str__(self):
...         return repr(self.value)
...
>>> try:
...     raise MyError(2*2)
... except MyError as e:
...     print 'My exception occurred, value:', e.value
...
My exception occurred, value: 4
>>> raise MyError('oops!')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
__main__.MyError: 'oops!'

class Error(Exception):
    """Base class for exceptions in this module."""
    pass

class InputError(Error):
    """Exception raised for errors in the input.

    Attributes:
        expr -- input expression in which the error occurred
        msg  -- explanation of the error
    """

    def __init__(self, expr, msg):
        self.expr = expr
        self.msg = msg

class TransitionError(Error):
    """Raised when an operation attempts a state transition that's not
    allowed.

    Attributes:
        prev -- state at beginning of transition
        next -- attempted new state
        msg  -- explanation of why the specific transition is not allowed
    """

    def __init__(self, prev, next, msg):
        self.prev = prev
        self.next = next
        self.msg = msg

>>> try:
...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
... finally:
...     print 'Goodbye, world!'
...
Goodbye, world!
KeyboardInterrupt
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>

>>> def divide(x, y):
...     try:
...         result = x / y
...     except ZeroDivisionError:
...         print "division by zero!"
...     else:
...         print "result is", result
...     finally:
...         print "executing finally clause"
...
>>> divide(2, 1)
result is 2
executing finally clause
>>> divide(2, 0)
division by zero!
executing finally clause
>>> divide("2", "1")
executing finally clause
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

with open("myfile.txt") as f:
    for line in f:
        print line,

class ClassName:
    <statement-1>
    .
    .
    .
    <statement-N>

class MyClass:
    """A simple example class"""
    i = 12345

    def f(self):
        return 'hello world'

# The instantiation operation creates an empty object. 
# assigns this object to the local variable x.
x = MyClass()